Reproducing the predictions of quantum mechanics

Oct 13, 2025 by windailys.com 94 views

Has anyone constructed an explicit hidden-variable theory that reproduces the predictions of quantum mechanics for two separated qubits?

Quantum mechanics is a fundamental theory in physics that describes the behavior of matter and energy at the smallest scales. However, the theory is still not fully understood, and many interpretations have been proposed to explain its predictions. One of the most debated topics is the concept of hidden variables, which suggests that the behavior of particles is determined by underlying variables that are not directly observable. In this article, we will discuss whether anyone has constructed an explicit hidden-variable theory that reproduces the predictions of quantum mechanics for two separated qubits.

Quantum mechanics is a probabilistic theory that describes the behavior of particles using wave functions and operators. The theory is based on the principles of superposition, entanglement, and measurement. However, the theory is not deterministic, and the behavior of particles is described in terms of probabilities rather than definite outcomes. This has led to the concept of hidden variables, which suggests that the behavior of particles is determined by underlying variables that are not directly observable.

Hidden variables are variables that are not directly observable but are thought to determine the behavior of particles. The concept of hidden variables was first proposed by Albert Einstein, Boris Podolsky, and Nathan Rosen in their famous EPR paper in 1935. They argued that quantum mechanics is incomplete and that there must be underlying variables that determine the behavior of particles. However, the concept of hidden variables is still not well understood, and many interpretations have been proposed to explain its predictions.

Two separated qubits are a fundamental system in quantum mechanics that consists of two particles that are entangled and separated by a distance. The system is described by a four-dimensional Hilbert space, which is spanned by the basis states |00, |01, |10, and |11. The system is a fundamental test bed for quantum mechanics, and its behavior is described by the principles of superposition, entanglement, and measurement.

An explicit hidden-variable theory is a theory that proposes a specific set of underlying variables that determine the behavior of particles. However, constructing an explicit hidden-variable theory that reproduces the predictions of quantum mechanics for two separated qubits is a challenging task. The theory must be able to explain the behavior of the system in terms of underlying variables that are not directly observable.

Despite the challenges, several researchers have proposed explicit hidden-variable theories that attempt to reproduce the predictions of quantum mechanics for two separated qubits. However, these theories are still not well understood, and many open questions remain. Some of the key challenges include:

Reproducing the predictions of quantum mechanics: The theory must be able to explain the behavior of the system in terms of underlying variables that are not directly observable.
Explain the phenomenon of entanglement: The theory must be able to explain the phenomenon of entanglement, which is a fundamental feature of quantum mechanics.
Address the problem of non-locality: The theory must be able to address the problem of non-locality, which is a fundamental feature of quantum mechanics.

Several researchers have proposed explicit hidden-variable theories that attempt to reproduce the predictions of quantum mechanics for two separated qubits. Some of the key examples include:

Bohmian Mechanics: Bohmian mechanics is a hidden-variable theory that proposes a specific set of underlying variables that determine the behavior of particles. The theory is based on the idea that particles have definite positions and trajectories, and that the behavior of the system is determined by underlying variables that are not directly observable.
Pilot-Wave Theory: Pilot-wave theory is a hidden-variable theory that proposes a specific set of underlying variables that determine the behavior of particles. The theory is based on the idea that particles have definite positions and trajectories, and that the behavior of the system is determined by underlying variables that are not directly observable.
Causal Dynamical Triangulation: Causal dynamical triangulation is a hidden-variable theory that proposes a specific set of underlying variables that determine the behavior of particles. The theory is based on the idea that space-time is made up of simple geometric building blocks called simplices, and that the behavior of the system is determined by underlying variables that are not directly observable.

In conclusion, constructing an explicit hidden-variable theory that reproduces the predictions of quantum mechanics for two separated qubits is a challenging task. However, several researchers have proposed explicit hidden-variable theories that attempt to reproduce the predictions of quantum mechanics. These theories are still not well understood, and many open questions remain. Further research is needed to fully understand the behavior of two separated qubits and to develop a complete and consistent theory of quantum mechanics.

Einstein, A., Podolsky, B., & Rosen, N. (1935). Can quantum-mechanical description of physical reality be considered complete? Physical Review, 47(10), 777-780.
Bell, J. S. (1964). On the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen paradox. Physics, 1(3), 195-200.
Bohm, D. (1952). A suggested interpretation of the quantum theory in terms of "hidden" variables. Physical Review, 85(2), 166-179.
Ghirardi, G. C., Rimini, A., & Weber, T. (1986). A stochastic process of state-vector reduction. Physical Review D, 34(2), 470-491.
Rovelli, C. (1996). Quantum gravity. Cambridge University Press.

The Hilbert space of two separated qubits is a four-dimensional space that is spanned by the basis states |00, |01, |10, and |11. The space is a fundamental test bed for quantum mechanics, and its behavior is described by the principles of superposition, entanglement, and measurement.

\mathcal{H} = \mathrm{span}\left( \{ |0\rangle\ |0\rangle, |0\rangle\ |1\rangle, |1\rangle\ |0\rangle, |1\rangle\ |1\rangle \} \right) \cong \mathbb{C}^4

The behavior of two separated qubits can be described mathematically using the principles of superposition, entanglement, and measurement. The system is described by a four-dimensional Hilbert space, which is spanned by the basis states |00, |01, |10, and |11. The behavior of the system is described by the principles of superposition, entanglement, and measurement, which are mathematically formulated using the following equations:

|\psi\rangle = a|00\rangle + b|01\rangle + c|10\rangle + d|11\rangle

\langle\psi| = a^* \langle 00| + b^* \langle 01| + c^* \langle 10| + d^* \langle 11|

\langle\psi|\psi\rangle = |a|^2 + |b|^2 + |c|^2 + |d|^2

The behavior of two separated qubits can be physically interpreted using the principles of superposition, entanglement, and measurement. The system is described by a four-dimensional Hilbert space, which is spanned by the basis states |00, |01, |10, and |11. The behavior of the system is described by the principles of superposition, entanglement, and measurement, which are physically interpreted as follows:

Superposition: The system can exist in a superposition of states, which means that it can have multiple properties simultaneously.
Entanglement: The system can be entangled, which means that the properties of the system are correlated with each other.
Measurement: The system can be measured, which means that the properties of the system are determined by the measurement process.

Despite the progress made in understanding the behavior of two separated qubits, many open questions remain. Some of the key open questions include:

Reproducing the predictions of quantum mechanics: The theory must be able to explain the behavior of the system in terms of underlying variables that are not directly observable.
Explain the phenomenon of entanglement: The theory must be able to explain the phenomenon of entanglement, which is a fundamental feature of quantum mechanics.
Address the problem of non-locality: The theory must be able to address the problem of non-locality, which is a fundamental feature of quantum mechanics.

Future research directions in the study of two separated qubits include:

Developing a complete and consistent theory of quantum mechanics: A complete and consistent theory of quantum mechanics must be able to explain the behavior of the system in terms of underlying variables that are not directly observable.
Explaining the phenomenon of entanglement: The phenomenon of entanglement must be explained in terms of underlying variables that are not directly observable.
Addressing the problem of non-locality: The problem of non-locality must be addressed in terms of underlying variables that are not directly observable.

In conclusion, the study of two separated qubits is a fundamental area of research in quantum mechanics. The system is a fundamental test bed for quantum mechanics, and its behavior is described by the principles of superposition, entanglement, and measurement. Despite the progress made in understanding the behavior of the system, many open questions
Q&A: Has anyone constructed an explicit hidden-variable theory that reproduces the predictions of quantum mechanics for two separated qubits?

A hidden-variable theory is a theory that proposes a specific set of underlying variables that determine the behavior of particles. These variables are not directly observable, but they are thought to determine the behavior of particles.

The problem with hidden-variable theories is that they must be able to reproduce the predictions of quantum mechanics, which is a probabilistic theory. This means that the theory must be able to explain the behavior of particles in terms of underlying variables that are not directly observable.

Two separated qubits are a fundamental system in quantum mechanics that consists of two particles that are entangled and separated by a distance. The system is a fundamental test bed for quantum mechanics, and its behavior is described by the principles of superposition, entanglement, and measurement.

Some examples of explicit hidden-variable theories include:

Bohmian Mechanics: Bohmian mechanics is a hidden-variable theory that proposes a specific set of underlying variables that determine the behavior of particles. The theory is based on the idea that particles have definite positions and trajectories, and that the behavior of the system is determined by underlying variables that are not directly observable.
Pilot-Wave Theory: Pilot-wave theory is a hidden-variable theory that proposes a specific set of underlying variables that determine the behavior of particles. The theory is based on the idea that particles have definite positions and trajectories, and that the behavior of the system is determined by underlying variables that are not directly observable.
Causal Dynamical Triangulation: Causal dynamical triangulation is a hidden-variable theory that proposes a specific set of underlying variables that determine the behavior of particles. The theory is based on the idea that space-time is made up of simple geometric building blocks called simplices, and that the behavior of the system is determined by underlying variables that are not directly observable.

Some of the challenges in constructing an explicit hidden-variable theory include:

Reproducing the predictions of quantum mechanics: The theory must be able to explain the behavior of the system in terms of underlying variables that are not directly observable.
Explain the phenomenon of entanglement: The theory must be able to explain the phenomenon of entanglement, which is a fundamental feature of quantum mechanics.
Address the problem of non-locality: The theory must be able to address the problem of non-locality, which is a fundamental feature of quantum mechanics.

Some of the open questions in the study of two separated qubits include:

Reproducing the predictions of quantum mechanics: The theory must be able to explain the behavior of the system in terms of underlying variables that are not directly observable.
Explain the phenomenon of entanglement: The theory must be able to explain the phenomenon of entanglement, which is a fundamental feature of quantum mechanics.
Address the problem of non-locality: The theory must be able to address the problem of non-locality, which is a fundamental feature of quantum mechanics.

Some of the future research directions in the study of two separated qubits include:

Developing a complete and consistent theory of quantum mechanics: A complete and consistent theory of quantum mechanics must be able to explain the behavior of the system in terms of underlying variables that are not directly observable.
Explaining the phenomenon of entanglement: The phenomenon of entanglement must be explained in terms of underlying variables that are not directly observable.
Addressing the problem of non-locality: The problem of non-locality must be addressed in terms of underlying variables that are not directly observable.

Some of the implications of the study of two separated qubits include:

Understanding the behavior of particles at the smallest scales: The study of two separated qubits can help us understand the behavior of particles at the smallest scales.
Developing new technologies: The study of two separated qubits can help us develop new technologies, such as quantum computing and quantum communication.
Understanding the fundamental laws of physics: The study of two separated qubits can help us understand the fundamental laws of physics, such as the principles of superposition, entanglement, and measurement.

Some of the challenges in applying the study of two separated qubits to real-world problems include:

Scalability: The study of two separated qubits is typically done in a laboratory setting, and it is not clear how to scale up the system to larger sizes.
Noise and error correction: The study of two separated qubits is sensitive to noise and errors, which can make it difficult to apply the results to real-world problems.
Interpretation of results: The study of two separated qubits can be difficult to interpret, and it is not clear how to apply the results to real-world problems.

Some of the future applications of the study of two separated qubits include:

Quantum computing: The study of two separated qubits can help us develop new quantum computing technologies.
Quantum communication: The study of two separated qubits can help us develop new quantum communication technologies.
Quantum simulation: The study of two separated qubits can help us develop new quantum simulation technologies.

Some of the open questions in the study of two separated qubits include:

Reproducing the predictions of quantum mechanics: The theory must be able to explain the behavior of the system in terms of underlying variables that are not directly observable.
Explain the phenomenon of entanglement: The theory must be able to explain the phenomenon of entanglement, which is a fundamental feature of quantum mechanics.
Address the problem of non-locality: The theory must be able to address the problem of non-locality, which is a fundamental feature of quantum mechanics.